Egypt–Cairo

1. When and how did Islam enter Egypt?

In the mid-7th century, specifically between 639 and 642 CE, Islam was introduced to Egypt through the conquest by Arab Muslim armies. The army led by the commander Amr ibn al-As of the Rashidun Caliphate conquered Egypt from the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). This was part of the early expansion of Islam, and the conquest of Egypt was completed when the army dispatched from Medina captured Alexandria. This process was carried out through military conquest, and subsequently, Egypt became part of the Arab Caliphate. Cairo, which was established in 969 by the Fatimid dynasty, later developed into a center of Islamic culture and authority.

2. Were there religious groups or powers that resisted when Islam was introduced? If Christianity existed before Islam, why did Christianity decline?

At the time of Islam’s introduction, the primary resisting power was the Byzantine Empire, as Egypt was under Byzantine control. There was military resistance, but it was overcome by the rapid conquest of the Arab army. Religiously, Coptic Christianity was dominant, and the Coptic Church faced Byzantine religious persecution, particularly during disputes over Monophysitism. Traditionally, it was suggested that some Copts either welcomed the Arab invasion or remained neutral; however, this narrative of welcome has been argued to have been exaggerated by later Muslim chronicles and some modern scholars (e.g., Hitti, Runciman). The attitudes of the Copts varied according to region, social class, and time period, and there is limited clear evidence that they immediately welcomed the Muslims despite Byzantine persecution.

Coptic Christianity persisted after the Islamic conquest but gradually declined. The reasons include: (1) economic pressure on non-Muslims, such as the jizya tax, (2) social and cultural assimilation, including Arabization and conversion to Islam, (3) discrimination resulting from the application of Sharia law, and (4) some coercive elements noted by Arab historians after the 14th century. Although Coptic Christians were the majority at the time of the 7th-century conquest, over the centuries they became a minority (currently approximately 10%). Even in the Cairo region, Coptic churches continued to exist, but mosques were constructed more dominantly.

3. What position did Islam take after the World Wars?

After World War I and World War II, Islam in Egypt combined with Arab nationalism and took a stance opposing British colonial rule. The Muslim Brotherhood was founded in 1928, politicizing Islam, and after World War II, Arab solidarity was emphasized in relation to the Palestinian issue, particularly during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Following defeat, Egypt strengthened its anti-Western and anti-Israel positions, although secular nationalism dominated under the Nasser regime. In the 1970s, during the Sadat era, Islamic extremism rose, and movements to implement Sharia appeared in neighboring countries such as Sudan. Al-Azhar University in Cairo supported moderate Islam and undertook international mediation. Overall, Islam emphasized anti-colonialism and Arab solidarity.

4. What is the most influential Islamic school in Egypt, who is its central figure, and what is the core of his teaching?

The moderate Sunni tradition centered on Al-Azhar University holds the greatest influence. Al-Azhar, established in 970 by the Fatimid dynasty, is one of the world’s most prestigious Islamic educational institutions, teaching the Qur’an, Sharia, and logic. The central figure is the current Grand Imam of Al-Azhar, Ahmed el-Tayeb, and historically, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, Hassan al-Banna (1906–1949), exerted significant influence.

An important reformist associated with the Al-Azhar tradition is Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905), whose thought emphasized the reconciliation of Islam with modern science and democracy. The core of his teachings includes: (1) adherence to the Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad (Sunnah), (2) adaptation to contemporary circumstances through ijtihad (independent reasoning), and (3) moderation and tolerance.

5. What influence does Islam have on Egypt, and what is the role of Cairo in the Islamic world?

Islam profoundly influences Egyptian society in multiple domains: (1) law, particularly family law based on Sharia, (2) culture, including Ramadan observance and mosque-centered daily life, (3) politics, through the impact of Islamist parties, and (4) education, especially via Al-Azhar. With approximately 90% of the population being Muslim, Islam permeates daily life and shapes national identity.

Egypt’s role in the Islamic world is as a center of Islamic education, with Al-Azhar educating about 90,000 students and exerting influence over Muslims worldwide. Moreover, as a founding member of the Arab League, Egypt leads Arab-Islamic solidarity and, due to its geographical proximity to Mecca and Jerusalem, serves as an important base for early Islamic expansion. Cairo, through Islamic Cairo, preserves cultural and religious heritage and serves as a significant religious and cultural center for the global Muslim community.