Southeast Asia–Jakarta

1. When and how did Islam enter Indonesia?

Islam began to reach Indonesia indirectly through Arab and Persian merchants during the seventh and eighth centuries. However, the full establishment of Islam in the Indonesian archipelago occurred around the thirteenth century, beginning in the northern part of Sumatra, particularly in the region of Aceh. Through maritime trade networks and contact with Muslim traders, Islamic teachings gradually spread among coastal communities and local rulers, eventually leading to the formation of Islamic polities in several regions of the archipelago.

2. Were there religious groups or powers that resisted when Islam was introduced? If Christianity existed before Islam, why did Christianity decline?

At the time Islam entered Indonesia, several Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms dominated the region. Among them were the Srivijaya and the Majapahit. During the late period of the Majapahit kingdom, around the sixteenth century, the Islamic state known as the Demak Sultanate conquered parts of Majapahit territory. Although some resistance occurred, overall Islam did not face significant obstacles in establishing itself in Indonesia.

One major reason was that the form of Islam introduced into Indonesia—largely influenced by Persian Sufi traditions—emphasized coexistence and cultural accommodation with local traditions. Indigenous communities also tended to view Islam as a new spiritual framework while maintaining aspects of their earlier beliefs. As a result, syncretistic elements became widely visible in Indonesian Islam.

For example, Muslims living on Java who practiced Islam in a culturally blended manner were often referred to as abangan. This term describes social groups who did not strictly follow all Islamic doctrinal requirements but maintained a more relaxed and culturally integrated form of religious practice.

3. What position did Islam take after the World Wars?

After the World Wars, Islam played a crucial role in Indonesia’s independence movement and the formation of national identity. From the late nineteenth century until the end of World War II, Indonesian Islam increasingly became a central element in nationalist mobilization. The largest Islamic organizations in Indonesia today were established during this period. They opposed Dutch Christian colonial rule and emphasized the autonomy of Muslim communities as well as the development of independent Islamic education.

Indonesia had experienced approximately 350 years of colonial rule under the Netherlands, followed by about three and a half years of occupation by Japan during World War II. In order to govern the Indonesian colony, the Japanese administration attempted to cooperate with Islamic groups. Because Japan was neither a Western colonial power nor a Christian nation like the Netherlands, some Indonesian Muslim groups adopted a cooperative stance toward Japanese rule.

However, other Islamic groups rejected this cooperation. They regarded Japan’s religious worldview and emperor worship as forms of idolatry and therefore resisted Japanese authority. As a result, some Muslim leaders were imprisoned. After Japan’s defeat in 1945, Islamic leaders quickly participated in the declaration of Indonesian independence, and many leaders of Islamic organizations took part in the national founding assembly.

4. What is the most influential Islamic school in Indonesia, who is its central figure, and what is the core of his teaching?

Although Indonesia is the world’s largest Muslim-majority country, no single Islamic school dominates the religious landscape. Instead, two major currents coexist: traditionalism and reformism.

The largest Islamic organization in Indonesia is Nahdlatul Ulama, founded in 1926 and now numbering roughly one hundred million members. Nahdlatul Ulama views Islam as a religion that should be practiced in harmony with local culture. Its founder was the Islamic scholar Hasyim Asy'ari (1871–1947). After studying in Mecca, he returned to Indonesia and worked to harmonize traditional Sufism with Shafi'i school. During the Indonesian independence struggle he was also respected as a religious leader who supported resistance against colonial rule.

Another important figure is Abdurrahman Wahid (1940–2009), the grandson of Hasyim Asy’ari and Indonesia’s fourth president. Wahid emphasized tolerance, pluralism, human rights, and peaceful coexistence among religions, helping to establish a moderate and inclusive identity for Indonesian Islam.

The syncretistic characteristics of Indonesian Islam were also shaped by the activities of the Wali Songo, a group of nine Islamic scholars and missionaries who were active from the late fourteenth to the early sixteenth centuries. They played a key role in integrating Islamic teachings with the existing Hindu-Buddhist cultural and religious traditions of Indonesia.

For instance, traditional Indonesian shadow-puppet theatre known as Wayang, which originally depicted the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, was adapted into Islamic-themed performances. This cultural adaptation helped Islam spread rapidly among the general population. The Wali Songo also established Islamic boarding schools that played an important role in expanding Islamic education.

Another major Islamic organization is Muhammadiyah, founded in 1912. It is the second largest Islamic organization in Indonesia. Whereas Nahdlatul Ulama emphasizes harmony between local culture and Islamic belief, Muhammadiyah stresses a return to the original sources of Islam—summarized in the slogan “Back to the Qur’an and Sunnah.”

5. What influence does Islam have on Indonesia and what is the role of Indonesia in the Islamic world?

Islam is the largest religion in Indonesia and shapes not only religious life but also national identity, politics, society, and culture. The national ideology of Indonesia, known as Pancasila, consists of five principles of state formation, the first of which is belief in one supreme God. This reflects Indonesia’s identity as a secular state built upon a religious foundation within a Muslim-majority society.

Indonesia officially recognizes six religions: Islam, Protestant Christianity, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Indonesian citizens are required to indicate their religious affiliation on national identification documents.

A contemporary religious discourse known as Islam Nusantara emphasizes a form of Islam adapted to Indonesian cultural realities and warns against rigid fundamentalism. This inclusive and peaceful interpretation of Islam has led Indonesia to be widely regarded as a representative model of moderate Islam in the global context. Unlike countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, or Pakistan, where political Islam often plays a central role, Indonesia is frequently cited as an example of a society-oriented Islamic model. International organizations such as the United Nations and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation have sometimes referred to Indonesia as a successful example of Islamic democracy.

Although Indonesian Islam emphasizes cultural integration and peaceful coexistence with other religions, the dominance of Islam within society remains evident. In many regions, public religious activities of non-Islamic religions are sometimes restricted, and Islamic moral norms strongly influence public life. Individuals who do not conform to these norms may experience social exclusion. Thus, while Indonesian Islam outwardly promotes tolerance and harmony, it simultaneously maintains a strong commitment to Islamic faith within society.