A Study on the Causes of the Decline of the North African Church after the Islamic Conquest

Jung Hae-won(Head of the African Studies Association)

1. Introduction to the North African Region

Figure 1. Map of North Africa Note. Map of North Africa   | Download Scientific Diagram

North Africa generally refers to five countries with shared historical backgrounds and political-economic alliances: Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania. These nations are part of the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), an organization aimed at establishing a single market. A common misconception among those unfamiliar with the region is that its indigenous peoples are black Africans. However, the true natives are the Berbers, a nomadic people who now remain a minority across North African states.

2. Motivation for This Study

Before being dispatched to this region, I had assumed that "all Arabs are Muslims." However, as is widely known, Arab countries such as Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq still host significant Christian populations—communities that have preserved their faith since the early church era.

A few years after arriving here, I had the opportunity to worship with a short-term missionary team from Egypt. I was struck by the realization that these Arabic-speaking Arabs were born Christians. I was so fascinated by this that I found it difficult to focus on worship, simply watching them in awe. Seeing both those who have maintained their Christian faith since the early church era and those who have become Arab Muslims after losing their spiritual legacy made me reflect deeply.

3. The Flourishing of the North African Church – Centered in Carthage

Christianity first entered the Maghreb region through Egyptian soldiers and merchants (Barness, 1985). After the early persecution period and the official recognition of Christianity in the Roman Empire in 313 CE, the Christian population in Carthage (modern-day Tunisia) reached 70–80% (Frend, 1952). As a Roman colony, the region saw church growth centered in urban areas, followed by rural expansion through missionary efforts. The Maghreb was also home to early church fathers like Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine. Notably, the Synod of Carthage in 397 officially confirmed the 27 books of the New Testament.

4. Internal Conflicts within the Church

Many scholars have studied the disappearance of even remnants of the church in North Africa, a topic of interest among those involved in missions. Various historical and political causes have been proposed, but the most frequently cited is the Donatist controversy that began in the early 4th century.

Under Emperor Diocletian, a major persecution occurred across North Africa from 303 to 305. Orders to burn Scriptures, destroy churches, and arrest clergy were executed immediately by the regional governor. Carthage, being one of the largest Christian centers in the Roman Empire, suffered heavily, with 3,000–4,000 martyrs during this period (Frend, 1952; Brown, 2000).

After the persecution, in 311, a bishop named Caecilianus—ordained by Felix, a bishop who had apostatized during persecution—was appointed as Bishop of Carthage. In opposition, those who sought to preserve the purity of the faith elected their own bishop, leading to a schism. When this bishop was killed, Donatus succeeded him. The Donatists, advocating purity, clashed with the Roman Catholic Church, which was more lenient toward apostates. Appeals to the emperor and subsequent violent incidents deepened the rift.

Although the two factions coexisted for some time, a synod convened in 411 by Augustine of Hippo condemned the Donatists as heretics, resulting in excommunication, property confiscation, and exile (Brepolis, 1974). Despite persecution, the Donatists grew among the Berbers, who harbored anti-Roman sentiments. This division weakened the North African church, leaving it unable to resist external forces when Islam arrived. Although Christianity coexisted with Islam for over 400 years (Fentress, 2018), it eventually declined. Hence, examining the specific events after the Islamic conquest is crucial.

5. After the Islamic Conquest

Islamic rulers imposed the jizya (poll tax) on non-Muslim subjects, while converts were exempt. Initially, the dhimmi system provided protection and some autonomy to non-Muslims, but over time, increased discrimination and taxation led to conversions. The Berber elite converted following military defeat, motivated in part by tax relief. Urban elites, mostly Catholic, either converted to avoid taxes or fled to Italy and Spain.

In the 12th century, the Almohad dynasty enforced radical Islamic policies, demanding conversion, exile, or death for Christians and Jews. They eradicated Christian villages and forcibly removed children from Christian education (García-Arenal, 2021). By this time, the number of dioceses had already fallen from 500 to 40 (Talbi, 1990). The Almohads viewed Christianity as a threat to monotheism and abolished the dhimmi system. Although Christian communities persisted into the 9th century, the Almohad persecutions, combined with poverty, disease, and nomadic invasions, marked a tipping point for extinction (Bat Ye’or, 1996).

Even acknowledging the severity of historical circumstances, the complete disappearance of Christianity in the Maghreb is striking—especially considering that other Arab regions also faced persecution. Unlike Roman-era persecution that often strengthened the church, Islamic-era pressures led to community collapse. This calls for deeper investigation into how the local foundations of Christianity differed from those in regions like Egypt, where Christianity persists today.

6. Comparison with the Egyptian Church

First, the degree of indigenization differed. In 7th-century Egypt, over 90% of the population (of 8–9 million) were Coptic Christians. Christianity was fully rooted as a national religion, and even as Arabic became dominant, the church remained central to ethnic identity. Christian officials contributed significantly to the administrative transition to Arabic (Foss, 2009), and religious terms were translated into Arabic (PERF, 558).

In contrast, Maghreb Christianity centered around Roman elites and failed to reach Berber commoners. Liturgies were conducted only in Latin, and the Bible was never translated into Berber. Thus, during Arab-Berber assimilation, Christianity vanished more easily (Courtoirs, 1955).

Second, geography and political structure played a role. Egypt’s Nile River supported dense populations and centralized rule, making it easier for rulers to control the country by managing one capital. This minimized interference in Christian communities, and the church, with its centralized structure, thrived in villages (Davis, 2004).

The Maghreb, in contrast, developed around coastal trade cities with limited inland reach. Once cities fell, entire church structures collapsed. After Islamic conquest, cities were quickly taken by Muslim merchants, and Berber inland areas became increasingly isolated and Islamized (Coombs, 2012; Anzaku, 2024).

Third, key historical events allowed Egyptian Christianity to survive. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 resulted in a distinct Coptic identity, and a peaceful agreement with the Arab general Amr in 642 helped secure early survival. Even during the later Mamluk persecutions, monastic movements and ethnic Christian identity sustained the church.

In the Maghreb, the Almohad persecutions destroyed village-based Christian communities. Although monasticism existed, it was urban-centered and thus more vulnerable (Duval, 1982). The root difference lies in indigenization: Egyptian Christianity became an ethnic religion with strong organization, while Maghreb Christianity, rooted in Roman urban elites, was uprooted by war and assimilation. Today, Christians in Tunisia make up less than 0.1% (mostly foreigners), while Egypt retains 8–12% (approximately 10 million) Christians (World Christian Database, 2024).

7. The Process of Indigenization

Indigenization refers to the process by which the gospel becomes so naturally embedded in a people that it feels like their own way of life. While timelines vary, the initial stage of church planting by locals generally takes 80–150 years, and full cultural indigenization takes 200–300 years (Wall, 1996, 2002). Berber Christianity lasted about 200 years, so time alone was not the issue. However, barriers included Latin-only worship and lack of Scripture in the Berber language. The Donatist movement made some regional efforts to reach Berbers, but its division from urban elites limited its impact.

Modern churches must grapple with how to achieve genuine indigenization in mission fields. Rather than imposing familiar methods from sending nations, missionaries must adopt culturally sensitive approaches that preserve gospel integrity. Ministries should seek expressions of faith that feel natural within the local culture and identify positive cultural elements that can nourish the gospel.

Reflecting on my own experience, I question whether I have overly relied on familiar Korean church forms. In prioritizing structured programs and visible results, I may have overlooked the relational and experiential needs of the local people. Understanding the host culture’s traits and allowing faith to naturally take root is essential. Just as individuals grow best when their strengths are nurtured, so too must churches help nations find their role in God’s kingdom and embed that identity within their cultural framework.

8. Conclusion

Today, new churches are being planted in regions where Christianity was once uprooted. While history repeats its failures, the Holy Spirit and the prayers of the church make history dynamic. Just as the Egyptian church once evangelized this region, the current work in the Maghreb is vital. Many individuals and groups are evangelizing, discipling, and serving. What began long ago is being restarted, and new believers are rising to ensure that this time the church remains deeply rooted.

We place our hope in God's renewed work unfolding in North Africa.

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